This page serves to provide an overview of all the major nutrients, their RDA or AIs, upper limits, plus short descriptions of their function, the dangers associated with overconsumption, as well as the types of food in which they are most commonly found.
Where not otherwise specified, all data and descriptions are based on National Academy of Sciences information.
Note that all RDAs, AIs, and ULs provided below are based on the needs of a 31 year old non-pregnant, non-lactating woman on a 2000 kilocalorie diet. Your personal requirements may differ (wildly). One way to figure out your individual needs, including calories per day, is the FooDosage Nutrition Calculator. It’s free, by the way.
The full articles for each nutrient (will) contain more detailed and additional information, as well as a list of foods with the highest concentration of the nutrient in question. Plus, they’re more pleasant to read, in our humble opinion.
Difference between RDA and AI (NAS): RDAs (Daily Recommended Intake) and AIs (Adequate Intake) may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.
Macronutrients
FooDosage Nutrition Calculator – Macronutrients (Results for a moderately active, non-pregnant, non-lactating, 31 year old woman with no dietary restrictions, weighing 60kg)
Carbohydrates
Function: The primary energy source for the brain, and a source of calories to maintain body weight.
Lower Limit: 45% of calorie intake (~220g at 2000 kcal), but an absolute minimum of 130g/day to maintain normal brain function.
Upper Limit: 65% of calorie intake (~320g at 2000 kcal).
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: While no defined intake level at which potential adverse effects of total digestible carbohydrate was identified, the upper end of the adequate macronutrient distribution range (AMDR) was based on decreasing risk of chronic disease and providing adequate intake of other nutrients. It is suggested that the maximal intake of added sugars be limited to providing no more than 25 percent of energy.
Food sources: Starch and sugar are the major types of carbohydrates. Grains and vegetables (corn, pasta, rice, potatoes, breads) are sources of starch. Natural sugars are found in fruits and juices. Sources of added sugars are soft drinks, candy, fruit drinks, and desserts.
Special considerations: None.
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Dietary Fiber
Function: Improves laxation, reduces risk of coronary heart disease, assists in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.
Recommended intake: 5% of calorie intake (~24g at 2000 kcal).
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Dietary fiber can have variable compositions and therefore it is difficult to link a specific source of fiber with a particular adverse effect, especially when phytate is also present in the natural fiber source.
It is concluded that as part of an overall healthy diet, a high intake of dietary fiber will not produce deleterious effects in healthy individuals. While occasional adverse gastrointestinal symptoms are observed when consuming some isolated or synthetic fibers, serious chronic adverse effects have not been observed.
Due to the bulky nature of fibers, excess consumption is likely to be self-limiting. Therefore, a UL was not set for individual functional fibers.
Food sources: Grains (such as found in oats, wheat, or full rice).
Special considerations: None.
Fat
Function: Energy source and when found in foods, is a source of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega 6 & 3). Its presence in the diet increases absorption of fat soluble vitamins and precursors such as vitamin A and pro-vitamin A carotenoids.
Lower Limit: 20% of calorie intake (~45g at 2000 kcal).
Upper Limit: 35% of calorie intake (~80g at 2000 kcal).
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: While no defined intake level at which potential adverse effects of total fat was identified, the upper end of AMDR is based on decreasing risk of chronic disease and providing adequate intake of other nutrients. The lower end of the AMDR is based on concerns related to the increase in plasma triacylglycerol concentrations and decreased HDL cheolesterol concentrations seen with very low fat (and thus high carbohydrate) diets.
Food sources: Butter, margarine, vegetable oils, whole milk, visible fat on meat and poultry products, invisible fat in fish, shellfish, some plant products such as seeds and nuts, and bakery products.
Special considerations: None.
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n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega 6)
Function: Essential component of structural membrane lipids, involved with cell signaling, and precursor of eicosanoids. Required for normal skin function.
Lower Limit: 5% of calorie intake (~11g at 2000 kcal). (NAS. SCF – European Scientific Committee on Food, and FooDosage: 2%.)
Upper Limit: 10% of calorie intake (~23g at 2000 kcal). (NAS.)
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: While no defined intake level at which potential adverse effects of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids was identified, the upper end of the AMDR is based the lack of evidence that demonstrates long-term safety and human in vitro studies which show increased free-radical formation and lipid peroxidation with higher amounts of n-6 fatty acids. Lipid peroxidation is thought to be a component of in the development of atherosclerotic plaques.
Food sources: Nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils such as soybean, safflower, and corn oil.
Special considerations: None.
Notes by FooDosage: Should be consumed in a ratio of between 1:1 to 10:1, ideally 2.3:1 relative to Omega 3.
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n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega 3)
Function: Involved with neurological development and growth. Precursor of eicosanoids.
Lower Limit: 0.6% of calorie intake (~11g at 2000 kcal). (NAS. FooDosage: one tenth the amount of Omega 6.)
Upper Limit: 1.2% of calorie intake (~11g at 2000 kcal). (NAS. FooDosage: The same amount as Omega 6.)
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: While no defined intake level at which potential adverse effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids was identified, the upper end of AMDR is based on maintaining the appropriate balance with n-6 fatty acids and on the lack of evidence that demonstrates long-term safety, along with human in vitro studies which show increased free-radical formation and lipid peroxidation with higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipid peroxidation is thought to be a component in the development of atherosclerotic plaques.
Food sources: Vegetable oils such as soybean, canola, and flax seed oil, fish oils, fatty fish, with smaller amounts in meats and eggs.
Special considerations: None.
Notes by FooDosage: Should be consumed in a ratio of between 1:10 to 1:1, ideally 1:2.3 relative to Omega 6.
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Protein and amino acids
Function: Serves as the major structural component of all cells in the body, and functions as enzymes, in membranes, as transport carriers, and as some hormones. During digestion and absorption dietary proteins are broken down to amino acids, which become the building blocks of these structural and functional compounds. Nine of the amino acids must be provided in the diet; these are termed indispensable amino acids. The body can make the other amino acids needed to synthesize specific structures from other amino acids.
Lower Limit: 10% of calorie intake (~49g at 2000 kcal).
Upper Limit: 35% of calorie intake (~171g at 2000 kcal).
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: While no defined intake level at which potential adverse effects of protein was identified, the upper end of AMDR is based on complementing the AMDR for carbohydrate and fat.
Food sources: Proteins from animal sources, such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, and yogurt, provide all nine indispensable amino acids in adequate amounts, and for this reason are considered “complete proteins”. Proteins from plants, legumes, grains, nuts, seeds, and vegetables tend to be deficient in one or more of the indispensable amino acids and are called ‘incomplete proteins’.
Vegan diets adequate in total protein content can be “complete” by combining sources of incomplete proteins which lack different indispensable amino acids.
Special considerations: None.
Vitamins & Nutrients
FooDosage Nutrition Calculator – Vitamins (Results for a moderately active, non-pregnant, non-lactating, 31 year old woman with no dietary restrictions, weighing 60kg)
Vitamin A
Function: Required for normal vision, gene expression, reproduction, embryonic development and immune function.
RDA: 700 µg
Upper Limit: 3000 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Teratological effects, liver toxicity Note: From preformed Vitamin A only.
Food sources: Liver, dairy products, fish, darkly colored fruits, leafy vegetables.
Special considerations: Individuals with high alcohol intake, preexisting liver disease, hyperlipidemia or severe protein malnutrition may be distinctly susceptible to the adverse effects of excess preformed vitamin A intake. β-carotene supplements are advised only to serve as a provitamin A source for individuals at risk of vitamin A deficiency.
Thiamin (B1)
Function: Coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched chain amino acids.
RDA: 1.1 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects associated with thiamin from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of thiamin are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Enriched, fortified, or whole-grain products; bread and bread products, mixed foods whose main ingredient is grain, and ready-to-eat cereals.
Special considerations: Persons who may have increased needs for thiamin include those being treated with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, or individuals with malabsorption syndrome.
Riboflavin (B2)
Function: Coenzyme in numerous redox reactions.
RDA: 1.1 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects associated with riboflavin consumption from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of riboflavin are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Organ meats, milk, bread products and fortified cereals.
Special considerations: None.
Niacin (B3)
Function: Coenzyme or cosubstrate in many biological reduction and oxidation reactions— thus required for energy metabolism.
RDA: 14 mg
Upper Limit: 35 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: There is no evidence of adverse effects from the consumption of naturally occurring niacin in foods. Adverse effects from niacin containing supplements may include flushing and gastrointestinal distress. The UL for niacin applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.
Food sources: Meat, fish, poultry, enriched and wholegrain breads and bread products, fortified ready-to-eat cereals.
Special considerations: Extra niacin may be required by persons treated with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, or those with malabsorption syndrome.
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Function: Coenzyme in fatty acid metabolism.
AI: 5 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects associated with pantothenic acid from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of pantothenic acid are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Chicken, beef, potatoes, oats, cereals, tomato products, liver, kidney, yeast, egg yolk, broccoli, whole grains.
Special considerations: None.
Vitamin B6
Function: Coenzyme in the metabolism of amino acids, glycogen and sphingoid bases.
RDA: 1.3 mg
Upper Limit: 100 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects associated with Vitamin B6 from food have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of Vitamin B6 are limited, caution may be warranted. Sensory neuropathy has occurred from high intakes of supplemental forms.
Food sources: Fortified cereals, organ meats, fortified soy-based meat substitutes.
Special considerations: None.
Biotin (B7)
Function: Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids.
AI: 30 µg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects of biotin in humans or animals were found. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of biotin are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Liver and smaller amounts in fruits and meats.
Special considerations: None.
Folate (B9)
Function: Coenzyme in the metabolism of nucleic and aminoacids; prevents megaloblastic anemia.
RDA: 400 µg
Upper Limit: 1000 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Masks neurological complication in people with vitamin B12 deficiency. No adverse effects associated with folate from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of folate are limited, caution may be warranted. The UL for folate applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements and/or fortified foods.
Food sources: Enriched cereal grains, dark leafy vegetables, enriched and whole-grain breads and bread products, fortified ready-to-eat cereals.
Special considerations: In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period— the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
Cyanocobalamin (B12)
Function: Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism; prevents megaloblastic anemia.
RDA: 2.4 µg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects have been associated with the consumption of the amounts of vitamin B12 normally found in foods or supplements. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of vitamin B12 are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Fortified cereals, meat, fish, poultry.
Special considerations: Because 10 to 30 percent of older people may malabsorb foodbound vitamin B12, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with vitamin B12 or a supplement containing vitamin B12.
Choline
Function: Precursor for acetylcholine, phospholipids and betaine.
AI: 425 mg
Upper Limit: 3500 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Fishy body odor, sweating, salivation, hypotension, hepatotoxicity.
Food sources: Milk, liver, eggs, peanuts.
Special considerations: Individuals with trimethylaminuria, renaldisease, liver disease, depression and Parkinson’s disease, may be at risk of adverse effects with choline intakes at the UL.
Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.
Vitamin C
Function: Cofactor for reactions requiring reduced copper or iron metalloenzyme and as a protective antioxidant.
RDA: 75 mg
Upper Limit: 2000 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Gastrointestinal disturbances, kidney stones, excess iron absorption.
Food sources: Citrus fruits, tomatoes, tomato juice, potatoes, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, strawberries, cabbage and spinach.
Special considerations: Individuals who smoke require an additional 35 mg/d of vitamin C over that needed by nonsmokers. Nonsmokers regularly exposed to tobacco smoke are encouraged to ensure they meet the RDA for vitamin C.
Vitamin D
Function: Maintain serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations, and in turn, bone health.
RDA: 600 IU
Upper Limit: 4000 IU
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Hypercalcemia which can lead to decreased renal function and hypercalciuria, kidney failure, cardiovascular system failure, and calcification of soft tissues.
Food sources: Fish liver oils, flesh of fatty fish, egg yolk, fortified dairy products and fortified cereals.
Special considerations: None.
Notes (FooDosage): 1. The RDA assumes minimal sun exposure. 2. Requirements may be tenfold greater than previously assumed, due to a calculation error, according to recent news.
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Vitamin E
Function: A metabolic function has not yet been identified. Vitamin E’s major function appears to be as a nonspecific chain-breaking antioxidant.
RDA: 15 mg
Upper Limit: 1000 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: There is no evidence of adverse effects from the consumption of vitamin E naturally occurring in foods. Adverse effects from vitamin E containing supplements may include hemorrhagic toxicity. The UL for vitamin E applies to any form of α-tocopherol obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.
Food sources: Vegetable oils, unprocessed cereal grains, nuts, fruits, vegetables, meats.
Special considerations: Patients on anticoagulant therapy should be monitored when taking vitamin E supplements.
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Vitamin K
Function: Coenzyme during the synthesis of many proteins involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism.
AI: 90 µg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: No adverse effects associated with vitamin K consumption from food or supplements have been reported in humans or animals. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of vitamin K are limited, caution may be warranted.
Food sources: Green vegetables (collards, spinach, salad greens, broccoli), brussel sprouts, cabbage, plant oils and margarine.
Special considerations: Patients on anticoagulant therapy should monitor vitamin K intake.
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Elements & Electrolytes
FooDosage Nutrition Calculator – Elements & Electrolytes (Results for a moderately active, non-pregnant, non-lactating, 31 year old woman with no dietary restrictions, weighing 60kg)
Calcium
Function: Essential role in blood clotting, muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and bone and tooth formation.
RDA: 1000 mg
Upper Limit: 2500 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Kidney stones, hypercalcemia, hypercalciuria, prostate cancer, constipation, soft tissue calcification.
Food sources: Milk, cheese, yogurt, corn tortillas, calcium-set tofu, Chinese cabbage, kale, broccoli, as well as other fortified foods and beverages.
Special considerations: None.
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Chromium
Function: Helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels.
AI: 25 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Chronic renal failure.
Food sources: Some cereals, meats, poultry, fish, and beer.
Special considerations: None.
Notes (FooDosage): No clear upper limit has been set by the NAS. It is advisable to not exceed the AI (Adequate Intake) by much, at least not with the help of supplements.
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Copper
Function: Component of enzymes in iron metabolism.
RDA: 0.9 mg
Upper Limit: 10 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Gastrointestinal distress, liver damage.
Food sources: Organ meats, seafood, nuts, seeds, wheat bran cereals, whole grain products, cocoa products.
Special considerations: Individuals with Wilson’s disease, Indian childhood cirrhosis and idiopathic copper toxicosis may be at an increased risk of adverse effects from excess copper intake.
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Fluoride
Function: Inhibits the initiation and progression of dental caries and stimulates new bone formation.
AI: 3000 µg
Upper Limit: 10000 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Enamel and skeletal fluorosis.
Food sources: Fluoridated water, teas, marine fish, fluoridated dental products.
Special considerations: None.
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Iodine
Function: Component of the thyroid hormones; and prevents goiter and cretinism.
RDA: 150 µg
Upper Limit: 1100 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Elevated thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) concentration.
Food sources: Marine origin, processed foods, iodized salt.
Special considerations: Individuals with autoimmune thyroid disease, previous iodine deficiency, or nodular goiter are distinctly susceptible to the adverse effect of excess iodine intake. Therefore, individuals with these conditions may not be protected by the UL for iodine intake for the general population.
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Iron
Function: Component of hemoglobin and numerous enzymes; prevents microcytic hypochromic anemia.
RDA: 18 mg
Upper Limit: 45 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Gastrointestinal distress.
Food sources: Fruits, vegetables and fortified bread and grain products such as cereal (nonheme iron sources), meat and poultry (heme iron sources).
Special considerations: Non-heme iron absorption is lower for those consuming vegetarian diets than for those eating nonvegetarian diets. Therefore, it has been suggested that the iron requirement for those consuming a vegetarian diet is approximately 2- fold greater than for those consuming a nonvegetarian diet. Recommended intake assumes 75% of iron is from heme iron sources.
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Magnesium
Function: Cofactor for enzyme systems.
RDA: 320 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: There is no evidence of adverse effects from the consumption of naturally occurring magnesium in foods. Adverse effects from magnesium containing supplements may include osmotic diarrhea.
Food sources: Green leafy vegetables, unpolished grains, nuts, meat, starches, milk.
Special considerations: None.
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Manganese
Function: Involved in the formation of bone, as well as in enzymes involved in amino acid, cholesterol, and carbohydrate metabolism.
AI: 1.8 mg
Upper Limit: 11 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Elevated blood concentration and neurotoxicity.
Food sources: Nuts, legumes, tea, and whole grains.
Special considerations: Because manganese in drinking water and supplements may be more bioavailable than manganese from food, caution should be taken when using manganese supplements especially among those persons already consuming large amounts of manganese from diets high in plant products.
In addition, individuals with liver disease may be distinctly susceptible to the adverse effects of excess manganese intake.
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Molybdenum
Function: Cofactor for enzymes involved in catabolism of sulfur amino acids, purines and pyridines.
RDA: 45 µg
Upper Limit: 2000 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Reproductive effects as observed in animal studies.
Food sources: Legumes, grain products and nuts.
Special considerations: Individuals who are deficient in dietary copper intake or have some dysfunction in copper metabolism that makes them copperdeficient could be at increased risk of molybdenum toxicity.
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Phosphorus
Function: Maintenance of pH, storage and transfer of energy and nucleotide synthesis.
RDA: 700 mg
Upper Limit: 4000 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Metastatic calcification, skeletal porosity, interference with calcium absorption.
Food sources: Milk, yogurt, ice cream, cheese, peas, meat, eggs, some cereals and breads.
Special considerations: Athletes and others with high energy expenditure frequently consume amounts from food greater than the UL without apparent effect.
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Selenium
Function: Defense against oxidative stress and regulation of thyroid hormone action, and the reduction and oxidation status of vitamin C and other molecules.
RDA: 55 µg
Upper Limit: 400 µg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Hair and nail brittleness and loss.
Food sources: Organ meats, seafood, plants (depending on soil selenium content).
Special considerations: None.
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Zinc
Function: Component of multiple enzymes and proteins; involved in the regulation of gene expression.
RDA: 8 mg
Upper Limit: 40 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Reduced copper status.
Food sources: Fortified cereals, red meats, certain seafood.
Special considerations: Zinc absorption is lower for those consuming vegetarian diets than for those eating nonvegetarian diets. Therefore, it has been suggested that the zinc requirement for those consuming a vegetarian diet is approximately 2- fold greater than for those consuming a nonvegetarian diet.
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Potassium
Function: Maintains fluid volume inside/outside of cells and thus normal cell function; acts to blunt the rise of blood pressure in response to excess sodium intake, and decrease markers of bone turnover and recurrence of kidney stones.
AI: 4700 mg
Upper Limit: –
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: None documented from food alone; however, potassium from supplements or salt substitutes can result in hyperkalemia and possibly sudden death if excess is consumed by individuals with chronic renal insufficiency (kidney disease) or diabetes.
Food sources: Fruits and vegetables; dried peas; dairy products; meats, and nuts.
Special considerations: Individuals taking drugs for cardiovascular disease such as ACE inhibitors, ARBs (Angiontensin Receptor Blockers), or potassium sparing diuretics should be careful to not consume supplements containing potassium and may need to consume less than the AI for potassium.
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Sodium
Function: Maintains fluid volume outside of cells and thus normal cell function.
AI: 1500 mg
Upper Limit: 2300 mg
Dangers of exceeding the upper limit: Hypertension; increased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke.
Food sources: Processed foods to which sodium chloride (salt)/benzoate/phosphate have been added; salted meats, nuts, cold cuts; margarine; butter; salt added to foods in cooking or at the table. Salt is ~ 40% sodium by weight.
Special considerations: The AI is set based on being able to obtain a nutritionally adequate diet for other nutrients and to meet the needs for sweat losses for individuals engaged in recommended levels of physical activity. Individuals engaged in activity at higher levels or in humid climates resulting in excessive sweat may need more than the AI.
The UL applies to apparently healthy individuals without hypertension; it thus may be too high for individuals who already have hypertension or who are under the care of a health care professional.
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