Choline – Top 12 Food Sources, Recommended Intake, and the Dangers & Side Effects of Overconsumption

Choline in Focus – FooDosage Nutrition Calculator

Choline is a water soluble vitamin-like nutrient, sometimes grouped with B-Vitamins, and essential for preserving the structural integrity of cells, as it is a source of the phospholipids phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, which are vital for cell membranes. It also plays a role in memory, mood, muscle control, and other brain and nervous system functions, as it is needed to produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Additionally, it is necessary for fat transport and metabolism, and early brain development, which makes adequate intakes especially important during pregnancy.

Most animals – including humans – are actually able to produce Choline endogenously in the liver, but it is believed the amounts are not sufficient and need to be supplemented from food sources.

Being water-soluble, it is stored in the liver and heart in small quantities, but excess amounts will be expelled quickly. This means we need an adequate, ongoing (daily) supply to keep Choline levels in the optimal range.

This article will cover the recommended intake levels, why we want to reach those levels, the dangers of overconsumption, and which foods are richest in Choline. As a twist, we sort foods by their nutrient to calorie ratios, as opposed to the more common per 100 gram values. This is because per calorie values correct for water content, and satiation, but more on that later.

Note that all recommended intake figures below are based on the needs of a 31 year old non-pregnant, non-lactating woman on a 2000 kilocalorie diet. Your personal requirements may differ (wildly). One way to figure out your individual needs, including calories per day, is the FooDosage Nutrition Calculator. It’s free, by the way.

Recommended Choline Intake

The recommended intake range for Choline, as set by the National Academy of Sciences:

Recommended minimum intake (RDA): 425 mg per day

Upper limit: 3500 mg per day

Note that your personal requirements may differ depending on your age, sex, pregnancy-, and lactation status.

“Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.”

Special Considerations

“Individuals with trimethylaminuria, renal disease, liver disease, depression and Parkinson’s disease, may be at risk of adverse effects with choline intakes at the UL.”

Pregnant women should be mindful of adequate intakes, as Choline has been linked to neural tube development.

Importance of an Adequate Choline Intake (Dangers of a Deficiency)

Though many people do not meet the recommended minimum intake of Choline, symptomatic deficiencies in non-pregnant adults are rare, but their possible symptoms are:

• Muscle damage
• Liver damage
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD or hepatosteatosis)

Risks of an Excessive Choline Consumption (Side Effects)

A Choline intake above the recommended upper limit of 3500 mg per day can cause side effects. These include:

• Fishy body odor
• Vomiting
• Excessive sweating and salivation
• Hypotension
• Liver toxicity
• May increase the risk of cardiovascular disease

Top 12 Choline Food Sources

The highest concentrations of Vitamin C are usually found in meats, especially organ meats, mollusks, crustaceans, fish, and smaller amounts in soy, mushrooms, tomatoes and peanuts.

Some choice examples of Choline rich foods:

Note that for this ranking, the foods were sorted by their nutrient/calorie contents, as opposed to the more common nutrient/gram sorting method. This is because per calorie values correct for water content, and satiation. Example: Butter may contain more Vitamin A than Spinach per 100 grams, but eating the 120 grams of spinach necessary to reach the minimum recommended amount of Vitamin A is by far more feasible (and recommendable) than to eat the 100 grams of butter required for the same amount of Vitamin A.

Choline Leaderboard – FooDosage Nutrition Calculator

Beef Kidneys

Choline per 100 g (simmered): 513 mg (121% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 324 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 158 kcal

Not everyone’s idea of a prime cut, beef kidneys do contain the highest concentration of Choline of all foods. Organ meats in general are a good choice for this, but beware the potential pesticide contents and choose grass fed or organic beef to err on the side of caution.

Beef kidneys are also a fantastic source of:

Beef Livers

Choline per 100 g (pan fried): 418 mg (98% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 239 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Beef Liver with Sage

Calories per 100 g: 175 kcal

As is the case for many nutrients, livers in general are extremely dense in Choline, cow and chicken livers especially. It’s not the worst idea to incorporate a bit of liver into your diet, but beware:

Apart from Choline and many other nutrients, liver is so rich in vitamin A and copper, that you should only eat small amounts to not exceed the upper limit. Since vitamin A is fat soluble, this can be taken as a weekly average.

But Vitamin A and copper are not the only reason to limit liver consumption to very small amounts. Heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium and lead, as well as pesticides tend to collect in farm animals’ livers. Try to only buy organic meat to get “cleaner” livers, apart from all the other arguments for buying organic foods in general.

Beef livers are also a phenomenal source of:

Chicken Livers

Choline per 100 g (pan fried): 327 mg (77% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 190 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 172 kcal

Both the recommendations and warnings issued for beef liver also apply to chicken livers, as well as organ meats in general. They are of course very similar, it’s just a little less of everything.

Chicken livers are also a fantastic source of:

Eggs

Choline per 100 g (boiled): 294 mg (69% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 190 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 155 kcal

For our first vegetarian option, we have eggs. They’re delicious and very nutritious in a diverse way, which shouldn’t come as a surprise considering they store all the nutrients for a growing life.

Eggs are also a good source of:

Caviar (Black and Red)

Choline per 100 g (raw): 491 mg (116% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 185 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 264 kcal

Chickens aren’t the only ones who can produce nutritious and yummy eggs. Some would argue certain species of fish are even better at it. Some might be right. But it’s not only the exclusively priced sturgeon eggs that make for a great Choline source. The much more affordable red (salmon) caviar will do just fine in terms of nutrients.

Caviar is also a great source of:

Example: Alaskan Salmon Roe Caviar (Amazon)

Oysters

Choline per 100 g (cooked, dry heat): 101 mg (24% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 128 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 79 kcal

Our next contender in the category of Choline rich rich people foods: Oysters.

Of course, it doesn’t have to be oysters. Other mussels and mollusks in general also have good amounts of Choline, oysters just lead the pack in per calorie rankings.

Please buy only MSC (wild caught), organic (farmed), or at least ASC (farmed) certified fish and seafood

Oyters are also an excellent source of:

Example: Crown Prince Natural Smoked Oysters in Pure Olive Oil (Amazon)

Shrimp

Choline per 100 g (cooked, moist heat): 135 mg (32% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 114 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 119 kcal

Just as mollusks, crustaceans make for a good source of Choline, as well as happy taste buds. First among crustaceans: Shrimp.

Please buy only MSC (wild caught), organic (farmed), or at least ASC (farmed) certified fish and seafood

Shrimp are also a great source of:

Ham

Choline per 100 g (cured): 125 mg (29% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 101 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 123 kcal

Mmmh, ham.. Great in sandwiches, soups, stews, or pure, ham comes with a good helping of Choline, among of course protein and other nutrients.

Please buy only organic, or at least free range meat products.

Ham is also a great source of:

Deer Loin (Venison)

Choline per 100 g (broiled): 113 mg (27% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 75 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 150 kcal

Mmmh, venison…

Even though the results of recent studies into the dangers associated with red meat may have been blown out of proportion, and it is perfectly fine and healthy to consume, the key is moderation. Two to three portions of around 200 grams of lean red meat per week are not only delicious, but can be a healthy source of protein. At 2.4 grams of fat per 100g, this certainly qualifies as lean.

Dee loin is also a great source of:

Turkey Drumstick

Choline per 100 g (roasted): 104 mg (25% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 75 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 139 kcal

Another healthy choice of meat and this time without controversy (at least concerning the health benefits, and at least at the moment, and at least according to the author’s knowledge at the time of writing), turkey legs make for an appetizing source of protein and many other nutrients.

Turkey Drumsticks are also a great source of:

Example: Double Certified Organic Turkey Drumsticks (Amazon)

Chicken Breast

Choline per 100 g (braised): 117 mg (28% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 75 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 157 kcal

Like turkey, but smaller, and the ultimate classic among “healthy meats”, chicken breast makes for an adequate source of Choline and a very tasty side to a massive beef steak, – I mean main course.

Chicken breast is also a great source of:

Example: Double Certified Organic Chicken Breast Boneless/skinless (Amazon)

Salmon

Choline per 100 g (cooked, dry heat): 112 mg (26% of recommended minimum intake.)

Choline per 100 kcal: 72 mg (Corrects for water content and satiation.)

Calories per 100 g: 156 kcal

Ah salmon, the chicken of the… rivers sometimes.

One of the most valuable and delicious foods out there, salmon also contains a good amount of Choline, and complete protein. Of course, its main benefit are the copious amounts of n-3 fatty acids (omega 3) and Vitamin D, but more on that later.

Please buy only MSC (wild caught), organic (farmed), or at least ASC (farmed) certified fish and seafood

Salmon is also an excellent source of:

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Bon Appetit 🙂

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